This site is dedicated to the exploration of how photons form matter.
This page was last modified on Saturday, August 16, 2008 06:59:30 PM
Current scientific theory on the formation of matter differs from what you are about to read. I will outline current scientific theory and present the accumulation of 12 years of research and experimentation so that an objective opinion can be formed by the reader.
I believe I have experimental evidence showing that the photon can become a stationary energy drifting in space similarly to that as matter drifting in space. This state of energy could be considered the rest state of a photon. My current experimentation evolved through ground state of matter experiments I performed in 1996. These experiments reveal a previously undiscovered state of the photon and during experimentation I have achieved small amounts of disintegration of materials tested. It's this experimentation I believe provides evidence the photon can and does exist at a rest state. In the following pages I will repeatedly refer to photons in the state of rest as coupled photons and also I refer to an area of space filled with many rest state photons as a standing wave.
This is a new discovery still in development.
Anyone interested in participating in the development of this project is encouraged to use the contact information provided on this website.
How does light become matter?
The most familiar propagation of electromagnetic waves is in telecommunications. As a communication medium we use radio waves and microwaves to transfer information usually over large distances.
Electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation is generally described as a self-propagating wave in space with electric and magnetic components. These components oscillate at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation, and are in phase with each other.
Electromagnetic Wave
Electromagnetic waves are categorized by the size of wave. This is done by measuring the wavelength. The electromagnetic spectrum defines the categorization of electromagnetic wavelength. Radio waves are the longest waves meaning they have the lowest frequency and gamma rays are the shortest meaning they have the highest frequency of the electromagnetic waves in the spectrum.
Definitions
Merriam-Webster's Dictionary
Electromagnetic Wave: one of the waves that are propagated by simultaneous periodic variations of electric and magnetic field intensity and that include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X rays, and gamma rays
Matter: a) the substance of which a physical object is composed
b) material substance that occupies space, has mass, and is composed predominantly of atoms consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons, that constitutes the observable universe, and that is incontrovertible with energy.
Matter
According to current scientific theory, a process called
nucleosynthesis which is the process of creating new atomic nuclei from preexisting nucleons is thought to have formed all matter in the universe shortly after the big bang. Once this process ended no additional matter has been formed within our universe. However, we do know matter can be changed from one element to another such as hydrogen to helium. There are four ways matter can be changed in form
nuclear fusion,
nuclear fission,
radioactive decay and
electron bombardment.
Experiments I have preformed strongly suggest matter is continuously formed within our universe. The process appears to begin with the interaction of electromagnetic waves. This interaction is commonly known as destructive interference and is currently thought to completely destroy two photons erasing them from existence. My experiments suggest a different outcome for these photons that experience destructive interference, their motion or velocity is all that is cancelled and those photons continue to exist drifting in space similarly to matter drifting in space.
Photon Coupling
Coupled photons also called
two-photon physics, is a branch of particle physics for the interactions between two photons. If the energy in the center of mass system of the two photons is large enough,
matter can be created. From
quantum electrodynamics we know that photons cannot couple directly to each other, since they carry no charge, but they can interact through higher-order processes. A photon can, within the bounds of the
uncertainty principle, fluctuate into a charged
fermion-antifermion pair, to either of which the other photon can couple. This fermion pair can be
leptons or
quarks. Thus, two-photon physics experiments can be used as ways to study the photon structure, or what is "inside" the photon.
During the 1970s and 1980s, various observations (notably of galactic rotation curves) showed that there was not sufficient visible matter in the universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies. This led to the idea that up to 90% of the matter in the universe is not normal or baryonic matter but rather dark matter. In addition, assuming that the universe was mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations. In particular, the universe is far less lumpy and contains far less deuterium than can be accounted for without dark matter. While dark matter was initially controversial, it is now a widely accepted part of standard cosmology due to observations of the anisotropies in the CMB, galaxy cluster velocity dispersions, large-scale structure distributions, gravitational lensing studies, and x-ray measurements from galaxy clusters. In August 2006, dark matter was definitively observed through measurements of colliding galaxies in the Bullet Cluster. This and other detections of dark matter are only sensitive to its gravitational signature; no dark matter particles have yet been observed in laboratories. However, there are many particle physics candidates for dark matter, and several projects to detect them directly are underway.
In the 1990s, detailed measurements of the mass density of the universe revealed a value that was 30% that of the critical density. Since the universe is very nearly spatially flat, as is indicated by measurements of the cosmic microwave background, about 70% of the energy density of the universe was left unaccounted for. This mystery now appears to be connected to another one: Independent measurements of Type Ia supernovae have revealed that the expansion of the universe is undergoing a non-linear acceleration. To explain this acceleration, general relativity requires that much of the universe consist of an energy component with large negative pressure. This dark energy is now thought to make up the missing 70%. Its nature remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang. Possible candidates include a scalar cosmological constant and quintessence. Observations to help understand this are ongoing. Results from WMAP in 2006 indicate that the universe is 74% dark energy, 22% dark matter, and 4% regular matter.
Electromagnetic Wave Coupling
All waves are subject to
phase cancellation, which most commonly refers to sound waves. Phase cancellation occurs when two waves 180 degrees out of phase combine and results in a reduced intensity to one or both of the original waves, some or all of the kinetic energy of the wave is canceled out, see image below.
Phase Cancellation
If we were to observe phase cancellation in a medium such as water using two identical waves meeting 180 degrees out of phase we would observe the waves totally canceling themselves out. The kinetic energy is removed from the water and a relatively motionless body of water results, only the waves are canceled we will not loose any water by canceling waves. The same is true for sound waves in fact; karaoke is an example of phase cancellation. A singer's voice can be completely removed from a song through the use of phase cancellation. Sound waves of similar pitch will cancel resulting in no sound. We will observe relatively motionless air where the cancellation occurred as a
standing wave but once again only the waves will cancel, we will not loose any air by canceling these waves. For electromagnetic waves when phase cancellation (
destructive interference) occurs a relatively motionless electromagnetic energy (coupled photons) exists where the cancellation occurred as a standing wave, we will not loose any photons by canceling these waves. But yet, our current scientific presumption is those photons no longer exist.
For electromagnetic waves this type of wave interaction is called
interference. There are two types of interference, constructive interference and destructive interference. When considering two waves that are in phase their troughs and peaks line up, with amplitudes A1 and A2 the resultant wave will have amplitude A = A1 + A2. This is known as constructive interference. If the two waves are 180° out of phase, then one wave's crests will coincide with another wave's troughs and so will tend to cancel out. The resultant amplitude is A = | A1 − A2 |. If A1 = A2, the resultant amplitude will be zero. This is known as destructive interference.
The image above shows interference patterns produced with a Michelson interferometer. Bright bands are the result of constructive interference while the dark bands are the result of destructive interference.
Below is an example of a coupled multi-frequency signal.
For an example of constructive and destructive interference using sound waves click
here. When the Java applet opens click on two source interference and enable sound. You can move the animated character into area's in which he and you will experience destructive interference resulting in no sound or into areas where he and you will experience constructive interference resulting in increased sound. You can re-position the speakers to see how their position with respect to one another effects the wave interactions.
The
double-slit experiment generally refers to an experiment in which light is allowed to diffract through two slits, which produces fringes or wave-like interference patterns on an opposing screen. The center image in the photo below shows interference patterns produced from a single light source passing through two slits and the resulting pattern produced on the screen. The images on the left and right show the results with one of the slits obstructed.
The image below, using the double slit experiment as an example is an illustration of our current misconceptions of electromagnetic wave interference. Assuming a single source of light radiating through both slits, the thick lines in the diagram represent wave crests and the thin lines represent wave troughs. An alternating pattern of areas with no light and areas with light will appear on the screen. Those areas are indicated near the top of the image, "constructive" indicates the areas on the screen where light appears and "destructive" indicates areas with no light. Some of the information available regarding constructive interference claims all the electromagnetic energy from slit 1 and slit 2 will appear on the screen in the image below. Additionally, the same information claims those waves that destructively interfere are some sort of an energyless wave that will continue to propagate, represented as position D in the image.
Our current understanding of interference and wave interaction needs re-examination.
Below is an image of water wave interference. The areas of destructive interference are clearly visible. Those areas a standing wave is produced and absorbed back into the medium (the body of water).
The image above is an example of the same wave interactions using water waves as we see in Thomas Young's double slit experiment using light. Yet our presumption is the destructive interference occurring in electromagnetic waves is that the photons that formed the waves no longer exist. If this were true the water in the wave tank above would also cease to exist as the waves cancel. But that is not the case no water will vanish from the water tank above simply by canceling waves. This is also true for photons when destructive interference occurs with electromagnetic waves, those waves have coupled and the photons exist differently. We only observe the motion of the photon canceling not the photon itself.
All waves form a standing wave when interference occurs. For waves with a medium such as water waves or sound waves the standing waves are absorbed back into the medium. For electromagnetic waves when destructive interference occurs, these standing waves can form matter.
This wave interaction takes place across the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Although not the current scientific explanation, for gamma rays the interaction between two photons forms coupled photons as
pair production. Because we must associate
elementary particles with size we can not consider the resulting coupled photons (standing waves) of lower frequency interactions (such as visible light) as quarks and leptons. But within the laws of physics as we know them if the coupled photons of even visible light exist as part of a standing wave their size will be reduced to that which would be considered quarks and leptons.
Because of momentum
conservation laws, the creation of a pair of fermions (matter particles) out of a single photon cannot occur. However,
matter creation is allowed by momentum conservation law when in the presence of another particle (it may be another photon or other
boson, or even a fermion) which can share photon's momentum. Thus, matter can be created out of two photons (this is the process inverse to annihilation).
An electromagnetic standing wave is made up from coupled photons and in most cases billions upon trillions of coupled photons form a single standing wave.
Wave or Particle
Louis de Broglie (August 15, 1892 – March 19, 1987), was a French physicist and Nobel Prize laureate. In physics, the de Broglie hypothesis is the statement that all matter (any object) has a wave-like nature (wave-particle duality). The de Broglie relations show that the wavelength is inversely proportional to the momentum of a particle and that the frequency is directly proportional to the particle's kinetic energy.
Particles exist at a specific location. If they are shown on 3D graph, they have x, y, and z coordinates.
Waves unlike particles cannot be considered a finite entity. Their energy cannot be considered to exist in a single place; a wave by definition varies in both displacement and in time.
Wave-particle duality in physics and chemistry, wave-particle duality holds that light and matter exhibit properties of both waves and of particles. A central concept of quantum mechanics, duality addresses the inadequacy of conventional concepts like "particle" and "wave" to meaningfully describe the behavior of quantum objects. A coupled photon has the 3 dimensional x, y, and z coordinates associated with particles and could be where wave-particle duality begins for matter.
The structure of the electric and magnetic fields of a coupled photon may exist in the following ways.
The first is stationary electrically charged magnetic fields bound together by oppositely electrically charged magnetic fields. The coupled photon would exist similar to an electrically charged capacitor, a fraction of the passing electromagnetic waves electric and magnetic field intensities bind together leaving behind coupled photons as a standing wave.
The second way in which coupled photon formation may occur is electric and magnetic fields travel in the shape of a figure eight. The fields of an electromagnetic wave oscillate at right angles as the wave propagates. A fraction of the intensities of the electric and magnetic fields of two passing waves 180 degrees out of phase may make their next right angle of propagation in a different direction completely reversing the direction of the field propagation of the coupled photon. If a fraction of the field’s intensities from both waves reverses direction the coupled photon's energy will oscillate in the shape of a figure eight.
The properties of the fields of this type of coupled photon would remain relatively unchanged. Meaning on the second cycling through the figure eight only a fraction of the field's intensities would reverse direction once again and a majority of the field's intensities would propagate normally. The same result would happen for each continued cycling through the figure eight resulting in dispersion of its energy. A known coupling called
evanescent wave coupling is described as a nearfield standing wave exhibiting exponential decay with distance.
Evanescent waves are always associated with matter, and are most intense within one-third wavelength from any acoustic, optical, or electromagnetic transducer. Optical evanescent waves are commonly found during total internal reflection.
Photon coupling from more than two opposite vectors may form a standing wave the image below is how the structure of electric and magnetic fields might look. There is some evidence to support the possibility of the existence of coupled photons with this structure. This coupled photon would be produced from electromagnetic waves converging from four different vectors, such as north, south, east and west.
The wave interaction associated with Thomas Young's double slit experiment would produce photon coupling existing as a standing wave similar to the image below. Notice each end of this coupled photon string, never do we observe a partial photon reflecting, refracting or polarizing and observation of other wave interactions tells us this is also the case for photon coupling.
The predominant charge a standing wave develops will depend on which end of the coupled photon string begins spin.
Charged Standing Wave
The
invariant mass or mass is a measurement or calculation of the mass of an object that is the same for all frames of reference. For any frame of reference, the invariant mass may be determined from a calculation involving an object's total energy and momentum.
In physics,
mass–energy equivalence is the concept that all mass has an energy equivalence, and all energy has a mass equivalence.
Special relativity expresses this relationship using the mass–energy equivalence formula:
In
particle physics, the mass is often calculated as a mathematical combination of a particle's energy and its momentum to give a value for the mass of the particle that is the same for all observers. This invariant mass is the same for all frames of reference. A mass for a particle is m in the equation:
Where E is the total energy of the system, p is the total momentum of the system and c is the speed of light.
The
relativistic mass of an object (also known as apparent mass) increases with its speed and therefore depends on one's frame of reference. The relativistic mass of an object can be found using the following equation:
Relativistic mass and rest mass (invariant mass) are both traditionally used concepts in physics. However, with the development of
Minkowski four-vector notation and
general relativity, physicists gradually concluded that the invariant mass is the more fundamental quantity in the theory of relativity, and that the relativistic mass is just a redundant expression for total energy.
The
Doppler effect is a known example of the energy density, velocity relationship. For electromagnetic waves the Doppler effect is known as
red shift and
blue shift. A red shift can occur when a light source moves away from an observer, corresponding to the Doppler shift that changes the perceived frequency of sound waves. Blue shift is the phenomenon that the frequency of an electromagnetic wave (such as light) emitted by a source moving towards the observer is shifted towards the blue side of the electromagnetic spectrum (that is, its wavelength is decreased, or its energy is increased).
To determine the amount of change in frequency of an electromagnetic wave when the emitter is moving towards us we find:
Change in frequency Observed frequency
Where f is the transmitted frequency, v is the velocity of the transmitter relative to the receiver: positive when moving towards one another, negative when moving away and c is the speed of light.
The conclusions I arrived at through observation of relevant
experimentation are that the combining of two electromagnetic waves, known as destructive interference (can be visible light) produces coupled photons existing as a standing wave. A standing wave would exist over an area made up from billions upon trillions of coupled photons.
Electromagnetic properties cause rotation in the standing wave's structure. This rotation may develop through properties associated with either end of the string (standing wave). For normal matter spin would develop on the positive end of the string of coupled photons shown below, for anti-matter spin would develop on the negative end.
The image below shows the rotation of a standing wave, the eye of this spiraling coupled photon string will determine the predominant charge this standing wave can develop.
This structural rotation increases in velocity resulting in decreased area, effectively blue-shifting the frequency of the coupled photon. The standing waves spin velocity and collapsing area act upon each other propelling the other, in other words each time spin velocity increases blue-shifting occurs propelling the collapsing structure at the same time the collapsing structure reduces area propelling the spin velocity. As the rotational velocity increases and collapsing structure decreases the standing wave progresses towards a particle state.
The frequency changes in this system are considered a potential energy. Its higher state of energy is directly proportional to its velocity. The energy sustaining its higher state of energy is absorbed from the surrounding environment; we observe this exchange of energy as gravity. Mass results from the change in frequency or the energy gained as a result of the standing waves rotational velocity.
The
proton is a subatomic particle with an electric charge of one positive fundamental unit (1.602 × 10−19 coulomb), a diameter of about 1.6 to 1.7×10−15 m, and a mass of 938.27231(28) MeV/c² (1.6726 × 10−27 kg), 1.007 276 466 88(13) u or about 1836 times the mass of an electron. Protons are spin-1/2 fermions and are composed of three quarks, making them baryons. The two up quarks and one down quark of the proton are also held together by the strong nuclear force, mediated by gluons.
The
electron is a fundamental subatomic particle that carries a negative electric charge. It is a spin-½ lepton that participates in electromagnetic interactions, its mass is approximately 1 / 1836 of the proton. Electrons have an electric charge of −1.6021765 × 10−19 coulomb, a mass of 9.11 × 10−31 kg based on charge/mass measurements and a relativistic rest mass of about 0.511 MeV/c².
The
neutron is a subatomic particle with no net electric charge and a mass of 939.573 MeV/c² or 1.008 664 915 (78) u (1.6749 × 10−27 kg, slightly more than a proton). Its spin is ½. Its antiparticle is called the antineutron. The neutron, along with the proton, is a nucleon. A neutron consists of two down quarks and one up quark. Since it has three quarks, it is classified as a baryon.
We know the overall charge of a neutron is neutral and carries no charge. Yet, contained in the neutron are both positive and negative electric fields. Outside the nucleus, free neutrons are unstable and have a mean lifetime of 885.7±0.8 seconds (about 15 minutes), decaying by emission of a negative electron and
antineutrino to become a proton. The photon is similar in that its overall charge is neutral yet it contains positive and negative electric fields, the coupled photons overall charge will also be neutral making it almost impossible to detect.
A coupled photon may fluctuate between a wave state and a particle state, I believe they are what we scientifically refer to as
virtual particles and
virtual photons. A virtual particle is a particle that exists for a limited time and space - so its energy and momentum values cannot be defined with unlimited precision. (Indeed, because energy and momentum in quantum mechanics are time and space derivative operators, then due to
Fourier transforms their spans are inversely proportional to time duration and position spans respectively).
Virtual particles exhibit some of the phenomena that real particles do, such as obedience to the conservation laws. If a single particle is detected, then the consequences of its existence are prolonged to such a degree that it cannot be virtual. Virtual particles are viewed as the quanta that describe fields of the basic force interactions, which cannot be described in terms of real particles. Examples of these are static force fields, such as a simple electric or magnetic fields, or any field that exists without excitations that result in its carrying information from place to place.
There are many observable physical phenomena resulting from interactions involving virtual particles. All tend to be characterized by the relatively short range of the force interaction producing them. Some of them are:
The
Coulomb force between electric charges. It is caused by exchange of virtual photons. In symmetric 3-dimensional space this exchange results in inverse square law for force.
The so-called
near field of radio antennas, where the magnetic effects of the current in the antenna wire and the charge effects of the wire's capacitative charge are detectable, but both of which effects disappear with increasing distance from the antenna much more quickly than do the influence of conventional electromagnetic waves, for which E is always equal to cB, and which are composed of real photons.
The
strong nuclear force between quarks - it is the result of interaction of virtual gluons. The residual of this force outside of quark triplets (neutron and proton) holds neutrons and protons together in nuclei, and is due to virtual mesons such as the pi meson and rho meson.
The
weak nuclear force - it is the result of exchange by virtual W bosons.
The
spontaneous emission of a photon during the decay of an excited atom or excited nucleus; such a decay is prohibited by ordinary quantum mechanics and requires the quantization of the electromagnetic field for its explanation.
The
Casimir effect, where the ground state of the quantized electromagnetic field causes attraction between a pair of electrically neutral metal plates.
The
van der Waals force, which is partly due to the Casimir effect between two atoms,
Vacuum polarization, which involves pair production or the decay of the vacuum, which is the spontaneous production of particle-antiparticle pairs (such as electron-positron).
Lamb shift of positions of atomic levels.
Hawking radiation, where the gravitational field is so strong that it causes the spontaneous production of photon pairs (with
black body energy distribution) and even of particle pairs.
Most of these have analogous effects in solid-state physics; indeed, one can often gain a better intuitive understanding by examining these cases. In semiconductors, the roles of electrons, positrons and photons in field theory are replaced by electrons in the conduction band, holes in the valence band, and phonons or vibrations of the crystal lattice.
Antiparticles have been proven to exist and should not be confused with virtual particles or virtual antiparticles.