Photons
and the
Formation of Matter
This site is dedicated to the exploration of how photons form matter.
This page was last modified on Friday, April 03, 2009 05:08:01 AM
Current scientific theory on the formation of matter differs from what you are about to read. I will outline current scientific theory and present the accumulation of 13 years of research and experimentation so that an objective opinion can be formed by the reader.
I believe I have experimental evidence showing that the photon can become a stationary energy drifting in space similarly to that as matter drifting in space. This state of energy could be considered the rest state of a photon or a photon without motion. My current experimentation evolved through ground state of matter experiments I performed in 1996. These experiments reveal a previously undiscovered state of energy (coupled photons may be the most accurate description) with particle-like properties and appears to be saturated into our environment. During the course of my experimentation I have achieved small amounts of disintegration of materials tested. It's this experimentation I believe provides evidence the photon can and does exist at a rest state.
This is a new discovery still in development.
Anyone interested in participating in the development of this project is encouraged to use the contact information provided on this website.
How does light become matter?
The most familiar propagation of electromagnetic waves is in telecommunications. As a communication medium we use radio waves and microwaves to transfer information usually over large distances.
Electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation is generally described as a self-propagating wave in space with electric and magnetic components. These components oscillate at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation, and are in phase with each other.
Electromagnetic Wave
Electromagnetic waves are categorized by the size of wave. This is done by measuring the wavelength. The electromagnetic spectrum defines the categorization of electromagnetic wavelength. Radio waves are the longest waves meaning they have the lowest frequency and gamma rays are the shortest meaning they have the highest frequency of the electromagnetic waves in the spectrum.
Definitions
Merriam-Webster's Dictionary
Electromagnetic Wave: one of the waves that are propagated by simultaneous periodic variations of electric and magnetic field intensity and that include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X rays, and gamma rays
Matter: a) the substance of which a physical object is composed
b) material substance that occupies space, has mass, and is composed predominantly of atoms consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons, that constitutes the observable universe, and that is incontrovertible with energy.
Matter
According to current scientific theory, a process called
nucleosynthesis which is the process of creating new atomic nuclei from preexisting nucleons is thought to have formed all matter in the universe shortly after the big bang. Once this process ended no additional matter has been formed within our universe. However, we do know matter can be changed from one element to another such as hydrogen to helium. There are four ways matter can be changed in form
nuclear fusion,
nuclear fission,
radioactive decay and
electron bombardment
Photon Coupling
Coupled photons also called
two-photon physics, is a branch of particle physics for the interactions between two photons. If the energy in the center of mass system of the two photons is large enough,
matter can be created. From
quantum electrodynamics we know that photons cannot couple directly to each other, since they carry no charge, but they can interact through higher-order processes. A photon can, within the bounds of the
uncertainty principle, fluctuate into a charged
fermion-antifermion pair, to either of which the other photon can couple. This fermion pair can be
leptons or
quarks. Thus, two-photon physics experiments can be used as ways to study the photon structure, or what is "inside" the photon.
During the 1970s and 1980s, various observations (notably of galactic rotation curves) showed that there was not sufficient visible matter in the universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies. This led to the idea that up to 90% of the matter in the universe is not normal or baryonic matter but rather dark matter. In addition, assuming that the universe was mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations. In particular, the universe is far less lumpy and contains far less deuterium than can be accounted for without dark matter. While dark matter was initially controversial, it is now a widely accepted part of standard cosmology due to observations of the anisotropies in the CMB, galaxy cluster velocity dispersions, large-scale structure distributions, gravitational lensing studies, and x-ray measurements from galaxy clusters. In August 2006, dark matter was definitively observed through measurements of colliding galaxies in the Bullet Cluster. This and other detections of dark matter are only sensitive to its gravitational signature; no dark matter particles have yet been observed in laboratories. However, there are many particle physics candidates for dark matter, and several projects to detect them directly are underway.
In the 1990s, detailed measurements of the mass density of the universe revealed a value that was 30% that of the critical density. Since the universe is very nearly spatially flat, as is indicated by measurements of the cosmic microwave background, about 70% of the energy density of the universe was left unaccounted for. This mystery now appears to be connected to another one: Independent measurements of Type Ia supernovae have revealed that the expansion of the universe is undergoing a non-linear acceleration. To explain this acceleration, general relativity requires that much of the universe consist of an energy component with large negative pressure. This dark energy is now thought to make up the missing 70%. Its nature remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang. Possible candidates include a scalar cosmological constant and quintessence. Observations to help understand this are ongoing. Results from WMAP in 2006 indicate that the universe is 74% dark energy, 22% dark matter, and 4% regular matter.
Electromagnetic Wave Coupling
Experiments I have preformed strongly suggest matter is continuously formed
within our universe. The process appears to begin with the interaction of
electromagnetic waves. This interaction is commonly known as
destructive interference and is currently thought to completely destroy two photons erasing
them from existence through cancellation. My experiments suggest a different
outcome for these photons that experience destructive interference, their motion
or velocity is all that cancels and those photons continue to exist drifting in
space similarly to matter drifting in space.
Destructive Interference occurs when two waves of similar frequency and 180 degrees out of phase combine resulting in a reduced intensity to one or both of the original waves, some or all of the kinetic energy of the wave is canceled out, see image below.
Photon Coupling
If we were to observe destructive interference in a medium such as water using two identical waves meeting 180 degrees out of phase we would observe the waves totally canceling out. Below is an image of water wave interference. The areas of destructive
interference are clearly visible. Here only the motion of the water that forms the wave is canceled in the areas that experience destructive interference, the substance of the wave (the water) does not experience cancellation.
The kinetic energy is removed from the water that formed the wave where destructive interference has occurred and a relatively motionless body of water results in those areas, only the motion of the water is canceled we will not loose any water by canceling water waves. The same is true for sound waves, karaoke is an example of destructive interference. A singer's voice can be completely removed from a song through the use of destructive interference. Sound waves of similar pitch will cancel resulting in no sound. But once again only the motion of the waves will cancel, we will not loose any air by canceling these waves.
The image above can be viewed as an interactive applet by clicking
here. When the Java applet opens
click on two source interference and enable sound. You can move the
animated character into area's in which he and you will experience
destructive interference resulting in no sound or into areas where he and you
will experience constructive interference resulting in increased sound. You can
re-position the speakers to see how their position with respect to one another
effects the wave interactions.
The double-slit experiment
generally refers to an experiment in which light is allowed to diffract
through two slits, which produces fringes or wave-like interference
patterns on an opposing screen. The center image below
shows interference patterns produced from a single light source passing
through two slits and the resulting pattern produced on the screen. The
images on the left and right show the results with one of the slits
obstructed.
The image below shows interference patterns produced with a Michelson
interferometer. Bright bands are the result of constructive interference while
the dark bands are the result of destructive interference.
Click on
Dr. Quantum to download an animated interference video on the double slit experiment.
Contrary
to our current understanding, for electromagnetic waves when
destructive interference occurs a relatively motionless electromagnetic
energy (coupled photons) exists where the cancellation occurred.
Similarly as we see in other wave type interactions we will not loose
any photons by canceling electromagnetic waves. But yet, our current
scientific presumption is those photons no longer exist.
All waves of the identical frequency can interfere destructively or constructively depending on their phase relationship and trajectory upon meeting. For waves with a medium such as water or sound waves the material (water or air) that formed the waves are absorbed back into the medium as the motion is canceled. For electromagnetic waves when destructive interference occurs, these coupled photons can form matter.
This wave interaction takes place across the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Although not the current scientific explanation, for gamma rays the interaction between two photons forms coupled photons as
pair production. The image below is a
Feynman diagram describing the interaction of gamma ray photons creating electrons and positrons. Notice the trajectories of the gamma ray photons are consistent with the trajectories of interference interactions.
Because of momentum
conservation laws, the creation of a pair of fermions (matter
particles) out of a single photon cannot occur. However,
matter
creation is allowed by momentum conservation law when in the presence of
another particle (it may be another photon or other
boson, or even a
fermion) which can share photon's momentum. Thus, matter can be created out of
two photons (this is the process inverse to annihilation).
Coupled photon of lower frequency interactions can not be considered
elementary particles (quarks and leptons) because coupled photons such as visible light have insufficient energy density. But within the laws of physics as we know them, even the coupled photons from visible light can increase energy density through spin velocity so that they would be considered quarks and leptons.
My experimentation reveals a previously undiscovered form of electromagnetic energy (coupled photons) with particle-like properties that appear to be saturated into our environment. The source appears to be the naturally occurring destructive interference of electromagnetic radiation from the sun (mainly inferred, visible light and ultraviolet light).
Wave or Particle
The de Broglie hypothesis is the statement that all matter (any object) has a wave-like nature (wave-particle duality). The de Broglie relations show that the wavelength is inversely proportional to the momentum of a particle and that the frequency is directly proportional to the particle's kinetic energy.
Particles exist at a specific location. If they are shown on 3D graph, they have x, y, and z coordinates.
Waves unlike particles cannot be considered a finite entity. Their energy cannot be considered to exist in a single place; a wave by definition varies in both displacement and in time.
Wave-particle duality in physics and chemistry, wave-particle duality holds that light and matter exhibit properties of both waves and of particles. A central concept of quantum mechanics, duality addresses the inadequacy of conventional concepts like "particle" and "wave" to meaningfully describe the behavior of quantum objects.
A coupled photon has the 3 dimensional x, y, and z coordinates associated with particles and could be where wave-particle duality begins for matter. The wave phase requirements of destructive interference would produce coupled photons with a physical structure as shown in the image below.
My ground state experiments reveal that a bond can be broken within the coupled photon separating it into two components with opposite spins, the image below shows how each component might look.
Natural occurring destructive interference from sunlight would produce long strings of coupled photons (the image below shows how a string might look). Notice each end of this coupled photon string, never do we observe a partial photon reflecting, refracting or polarizing and observation of other wave interactions tells us this is also the case for photon coupling.
A coupled photon string in most cases would be made up from billions upon trillions of coupled photons. The resulting string will develop spin rotation, the image below shows how a string of coupled photons might look as it develops spin.
The rotational spin velocity of a coupled photon string will increase it's energy density.
The
invariant mass or mass is a measurement or calculation of the mass of an object that is the same for all frames of reference. For any frame of reference, the invariant mass may be determined from a calculation involving an object's total energy and momentum.
In physics,
mass–energy equivalence is the concept that all mass has an energy equivalence, and all energy has a mass equivalence.
Special relativity expresses this relationship using the mass–energy equivalence formula:
In
particle physics, the mass is often calculated as a mathematical combination of a particle's energy and its momentum to give a value for the mass of the particle that is the same for all observers. This invariant mass is the same for all frames of reference. A mass for a particle is m in the equation:
Where E is the total energy of the system, p is the total momentum of the system and c is the speed of light.
The
relativistic mass of an object (also known as apparent mass) increases with its speed and therefore depends on one's frame of reference. The relativistic mass of an object can be found using the following equation:
Relativistic mass and rest mass (invariant mass) are both traditionally used concepts in physics. However, with the development of
Minkowski four-vector notation and
general relativity, physicists gradually concluded that the invariant mass is the more fundamental quantity in the theory of relativity, and that the relativistic mass is just a redundant expression for total energy.
The
Doppler effect is a known example of the energy density, velocity relationship. For electromagnetic waves the Doppler effect is known as
red shift and
blue shift. A red shift can occur when a light source moves away from an observer, corresponding to the Doppler shift that changes the perceived frequency of sound waves. Blue shift is the phenomenon that the frequency of an electromagnetic wave (such as light) emitted by a source moving towards the observer is shifted towards the blue side of the electromagnetic spectrum (that is, its wavelength is decreased, or its energy is increased).
To determine the amount of change in frequency of an electromagnetic wave when the emitter is moving towards us we find:
Change in frequency Observed frequency
Where f is the transmitted frequency, v is the velocity of the transmitter relative to the receiver: positive when moving towards one another, negative when moving away and c is the speed of light.
The conclusions I arrived at through observation of relevant
experimentation are that the combining of two electromagnetic waves, known as destructive interference (can be visible light) produces long strings of coupled photons. A string made up from billions upon trillions of coupled photons develops a rotational spin.
The image below shows the rotation of a string of coupled photons.
This structural rotation increases in velocity resulting in decreased area and effectively increasing the energy density of the coupled photons. The strings spin velocity and collapsing area act upon each other propelling one another, in other words each time spin velocity accelerates the energy density increases proportionally, which in turn collapses the area consumed by the spiraling structure. The collapsing structure of the coupled photon string reduces the area and accelerates the spin velocity. As the rotational spin velocity accelerates and area decreases the coupled photon string progresses towards a particle state (effectively increasing the energy density).
The frequency changes in this system are considered a potential energy. Its higher state of energy is directly proportional to its velocity. Mass (energy density) results from the change in frequency or the energy gained as a result of the spin velocity.
The
proton is a subatomic particle with an electric charge of one positive fundamental unit (1.602 × 10−19 coulomb), a diameter of about 1.6 to 1.7×10−15 m, and a mass of 938.27231(28) MeV/c² (1.6726 × 10−27 kg), 1.007 276 466 88(13) u or about 1836 times the mass of an electron. Protons are spin-1/2 fermions and are composed of three quarks, making them baryons. The two up quarks and one down quark of the proton are also held together by the strong nuclear force, mediated by gluons.
The
electron is a fundamental subatomic particle that carries a negative electric charge. It is a spin-½ lepton that participates in electromagnetic interactions, its mass is approximately 1 / 1836 of the proton. Electrons have an electric charge of −1.6021765 × 10−19 coulomb, a mass of 9.11 × 10−31 kg based on charge/mass measurements and a relativistic rest mass of about 0.511 MeV/c².
The
neutron is a subatomic particle with no net electric charge and a mass of 939.573 MeV/c² or 1.008 664 915 (78) u (1.6749 × 10−27 kg, slightly more than a proton). Its spin is ½. Its antiparticle is called the antineutron. The neutron, along with the proton, is a nucleon. A neutron consists of two down quarks and one up quark. Since it has three quarks, it is classified as a baryon.
We know the overall charge of a neutron is neutral and carries no charge. Yet, contained in the neutron are both positive and negative electric fields. Outside the nucleus, free neutrons are unstable and have a mean lifetime of 885.7±0.8 seconds (about 15 minutes), decaying by emission of a negative electron and
antineutrino to become a proton. The photon is similar in that its overall charge is neutral yet it contains positive and negative electric fields, the coupled photons overall charge will also be neutral making it almost impossible to detect.
A coupled photon may fluctuate between a wave state and a particle state, I believe they are what we scientifically refer to as
virtual particles and
virtual photons. A virtual particle is a particle that exists for a limited time and space - so its energy and momentum values cannot be defined with unlimited precision. (Indeed, because energy and momentum in quantum mechanics are time and space derivative operators, then due to
Fourier transforms their spans are inversely proportional to time duration and position spans respectively).
Virtual particles exhibit some of the phenomena that real particles do, such as obedience to the conservation laws. If a single particle is detected, then the consequences of its existence are prolonged to such a degree that it cannot be virtual. Virtual particles are viewed as the quanta that describe fields of the basic force interactions, which cannot be described in terms of real particles. Examples of these are static force fields, such as a simple electric or magnetic fields, or any field that exists without excitations that result in its carrying information from place to place.
There are many observable physical phenomena resulting from interactions involving virtual particles. All tend to be characterized by the relatively short range of the force interaction producing them. Some of them are:
The
Coulomb force between electric charges. It is caused by exchange of virtual photons. In symmetric 3-dimensional space this exchange results in inverse square law for force.
The so-called
near field of radio antennas, where the magnetic effects of the current in the antenna wire and the charge effects of the wire's capacitative charge are detectable, but both of which effects disappear with increasing distance from the antenna much more quickly than do the influence of conventional electromagnetic waves, for which E is always equal to cB, and which are composed of real photons.
The
strong nuclear force between quarks - it is the result of interaction of virtual gluons. The residual of this force outside of quark triplets (neutron and proton) holds neutrons and protons together in nuclei, and is due to virtual mesons such as the pi meson and rho meson.
The
weak nuclear force - it is the result of exchange by virtual W bosons.
The
spontaneous emission of a photon during the decay of an excited atom or excited nucleus; such a decay is prohibited by ordinary quantum mechanics and requires the quantization of the electromagnetic field for its explanation.
The
Casimir effect, where the ground state of the quantized electromagnetic field causes attraction between a pair of electrically neutral metal plates.
The
van der Waals force, which is partly due to the Casimir effect between two atoms,
Vacuum polarization, which involves pair production or the decay of the vacuum, which is the spontaneous production of particle-antiparticle pairs (such as electron-positron).
Lamb shift of positions of atomic levels.
Hawking radiation, where the gravitational field is so strong that it causes the spontaneous production of photon pairs (with
black body energy distribution) and even of particle pairs.
Most of these have analogous effects in solid-state physics; indeed, one can often gain a better intuitive understanding by examining these cases. In semiconductors, the roles of electrons, positrons and photons in field theory are replaced by electrons in the conduction band, holes in the valence band, and phonons or vibrations of the crystal lattice.
Antiparticles have been proven to exist and should not be confused with virtual particles or virtual antiparticles.